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Salad Greens
I. Documentary references to Salad Greens
References to Salad Greens in the Virginia Gazette:
Nov. 30, 1759, Christopher Ayscough, Palace Gardener: White Cass Lettuce, Black Cass Lettuce, Brown Dutch Lettuce, Nonpareil Lettuce, Silesia Lettuce, White Curled Endive, White Mustard, Garden Cresses, Winter Cresses
March 26, 1767, William Wills, Richmond,
John Donley, Petersburg:
Cabbage Lettuce, Gos Lettuce,
Dutch Lettuce, Silesia Lettuce, Imperial
Lettuce, Nasturtium, Summer Spinach, Winter
Spinach, Garden Cress, Parsley, White
Beet [chard], White Mustard, Corn Salad
March 10, 1768, William Wills,
Richmond, John Donley, Petersburg:
Silesia Lettuce, Cabbage Lettuce, Brown
Dutch Lettuce, Capuchin Lettuce, White
Cos Lettuce, Nasturtium, Parsley, Summer
Spinach, Winter Spinach, Green Endive,
White Endive, Garden Cress, Water Cress
Oct. 10, 1771, Mr. Campbell's Store, Richmond: Indian Cresses, Cabbage Lettuce, Ice Lettuce, Parsley, Broad leafed Spinage, Round Spinage
Dec. 31, 1772, John Carter Store, Williamsburg: Curled Cress seeds, White Cos Lettuce, Silesia lettuce, Curled Parsley, Spinnage
Dec. 16, 1773, Jon Carter Store, Williamsburg: White Endive, Imperial Lettuce, White Mustard, Curled Parsley, Round Spinnage
Jan. 3, 1774, James Wilson, College of William and Mary: Red and White Beet, White Mustard, Round Leaf and Common Cresses, Lettuce seeds of all sorts, Fine spinage seeds
April 6, 1775, John Carter Store, Williamsburg: White Coss Lettuce, Ciletia Lettuce, Imperial Lettuce, White Mustard, Spinage, Curled Parsley, Cresses, White Curled Endive
Sept. 9, 1775, Myles Taylor’s
Store, Richmond:
(Imported from Italy) Orange Lettuce,
Roman Lettuce,
Curled Lettuce, Dutch Lettuce, Winter
Lettuce, Italian Loaf Early Lettuce, Imperial
Lettuce, Endive, Curled Endive, Parsley,
Roman Parsley, Spinage, Beet [white],
Cress
Feb. 3, 1776, Myles Taylor's Store, Richmond: (Imported from Italy) Orange Lettuce, Roman Lettuce, Curled Lettuce, Italian Loaf Lettuce, Winter Lettuce, Dutch Lettuce, Imperial Lettuce, Broad Endive, Curled Endive, Mazzochi Endive, Late Endive, Common Parsley, Roman Parsley, Spinage, Cress
March 7, 1792, Minton Collin's Store, Richmond: Cabbage Lettuce, Large Roman Lettuce, White Lettuce, Green Lettuce, Garden Cress, White Mustard, Double Parsley, Round Spinich, Prickly Spinich, White Curled Endive
Oct. 17, 1792, Minton Collin's Store, Richmond: Green Coss Lettuce, White Coss Lettuce, Large Roman Lettuce, Mixed Lettuce, Round Spinach, Prickly Spinach
Jan 4, 1799, Peter Bellet Nursery, Williamsburg: Lettuce, Curled Parsley, Spinnage
Other 18th century references in Virginia
Sept. 7, 1771, Robert Carter Nicholas order to John Norton Company: Cass lettuce, Silecia Lettuce, Dutch Cabbage Lettuce, Round Spinage, Prickly Spinage, Best Endive, Water Cresses, White Mustard, Corn Salad
1774, Wallace, Davidson and Johnson Order Book: Leopan Lettuce, Spinage, Cress
Salad Greens recorded in William Byrd II, Natural History, c. 1730: Smooth Lettuce, Curled Lettuce, Red Lettuce, Cress- two kinds, Mustard, Parsley, two species
Salad Greens recorded in Landon Carter's Diary, 1757 - 1778: Lettuce, Cos, Spinage, Endive, Parsley,
Salad Greens recorded in Randolph's "A Treatise on Gardening," 1793: Common Garden Lettuce, Cabbage Lettuce, Cilicia Lettuce, Imperial White Lettuce, Egyptian Coss, Green Cos, Versailles Coss, Dutch Brown Lettuce, Green Capuchin Lettuce, Allepo Lettuce, Roman Lettuce, Water Cress, Indian Cress, Endive, Parsley - several sorts, Spinach,
Salad Greens recorded in Joseph Prentis's Monthly Kalender, 1775 - 1779: Lettuce, Parseley, Spinach, Garden Cresses, White Mustard, Nasturtian, Endive
Salad Greens recorded by Maj. Thomas Jones, Essex Co., 1797: Cos Lettuce, Silisia Lettuce, Imperial Lettuce, Tennis Ball Lettuce, Green Shell Lettuce, Green Cabbage Lettuce, Curled Endive, Spinach, Parsley, Double Pepper Grass, White Mustard
Salad Greens recorded in Thomas Jefferson's Garden Book: Lettuce
varieties: Berlin (1786), Brown (1824), Cabbage (1794), Dutch
Brown (1809), Endive-leaved (1786), Forward (1786), Green (1794), Ice
(1774), Loaf (1794), Long Leaved (1794), Marseilles (1809), Radish (1811),
Roman (1804), Silesia (1819), Tennis-ball (1809), White (1811), Winter
(1817), Broad Endive, Curled Endive, Meaux Endive, English Cress, Garden
Cress, Italian Cress, Mountain Cress, Upland Cress, Common Parsley, Curled
Parsley, Double Parsley, Smooth Spinach, Summer Spinach, Winter Spinach,
Corn Salad, Red and White Beet, Nasturtium
II.Discussion
Salad greens have been used since antiquity in soups, boiled, pickled or eaten raw. Stephen Switzer, in the Practical Kitchen Gardiner (1727) writes that for raw salads, "there are about thirty or forty species." Salad greens, in the broadest sense, can include a great number of leafy greens which Switzer writes. "are by some learned naturalists appropriated to this purpose." Plants such as Purslane, Burdock, Orache, Borage, Salad Burnet, Sea Kale, Dandelion, French Sorrel, Alexanders, and many, many other plants have been used as salad greens. Flowers have also been used to ornament and flavor salads throughout history. Leonard Meager, in the English Gardener (1683) lists the flowers of Cowslip, Borage, Bugloss and Gillyflowers (pinks) as salad ingredients and perhaps the most common flower used in salads since its introduction to Europe in the 16th century has been the Nasturtium.
For the purpose of this study, however, I will limit the scope of salad greens to those listed by gardeners, merchants or naturalists in pre-revolutionary Virginia. Greens were recognized as an important ingredient in the diet. A General Order issued by Washington on June 9, 1777 reads: “As there is a plenty of common and French sorrel; Lamb’s Quarters, and water cresses, growing about camp; and as these vegetables are very conducive to health, and tend to prevent the scurvy and all putrid disorders…The General recommends to the soldiers the constant use of them. The regimental officer of the day to send to gather them every morning, and have them distributed among the men.” It is very difficult to gauge tthe popularity of salad greens with the "middling" sort. John Harrower, an indentured servant and tutor to the Dangerfield family near Fredricksburg, VA lists a number of vegetables grown for "amusement" in his garden between 1774-76, but none of them would be considered salad greens. On the other hand, Richard Parkinson, an English naturalists who travels in the Chesapeake in the 1790's writes; "Indeed, in the spring they boil everything that is green, for use at the table."
Salad greens are very well represented in the garden works of John Randolph and Joseph Prentis in Williamsburg which would indicate that they were common at the tables of gentlemen and area stores carry a wide selection of salad greens so they were certainly available to the general population. While salad greens are not mentioned in local diaries as often as such plants as cauliflowers, artichokes or melons this may be because they were used more as a garnish than as a main dish. In the journal of Philip Vickers Fithian he writes on April 3, 1774; "We had an elegant dinner; Beef and Greens."
The popularity of individual varieties of salad greens change over time. Many of the minor greens, such as Purslane and Alexanders are common in the 17th century and before but largely disappear by the 18th century. Rocket, or what is commonly known today as Arugula, is listed by all authors in 16th and 17th century works but falls out of favor in England by the middle of the 18th century and is not mentioned at all in 18th century Williamsburg. The value and desirability of all greens is, of course, subject to the view point of the garden writer. Some authors find endive to be highly desirable and others think it scarce worth the trouble of growing. The way the salad greens are prepared is also subject to individual whims. Robert Burton (1577-1640) writes an Anatomy which is republished in 1845 in which he writes that salads are "windy and not fit therefore to be eaten of all men raw, though qualified with oyl, but in broths, or otherwise."
It is likely that salad greens were found in most gardens in 18th century Williamsburg. Plants such as the Cresses, which are mentioned by all local authors, and grow throughout the winter and early spring would provide fresh greens during the time of year when few fresh greens were available. Lettuce, in the 18th century, was the most highly esteemed of the salad greens. . Frances Michel, a Swiss traveler who is in the Williamsburg area from Oct. 2, 1701 until Dec. 1 1702 records in his journal: The inhabitants pay little attention to garden plants except lettuce, although most everything grows here. A distinction it holds to this day. Peter Henderson, in Gardening For Profit (1867) writes; "Perhaps there is no plant of the garden that we could so ill afford to dispense with as Lettuce."
III. Salad Green Varieties
A. Lettuce:
Garden Lettuce, Lactuca sativa, is a native of the eastern Mediterranean and was first cultivated around 4500 BC (Evolution of Crop Plants, Simmonds, 1976). Lettuce leaves are pictured on the walls of Egyptian tombs dating to around 2680 BC and appear to be of the Romaine or Cos type. Both the Greeks and the Romans grew several types of Lettuce. The Greek historian Herodotus (484-425 BC) writes that lettuce was common at the tables of Persian Kings by 550 BC. Pliny (23-79 AD), in the Natural History refers to lettuce varieties from Egypt, Sicily and Cappadocia and lists nine varieties including: "Crispa, Laconicon, Nigra, Pupurea and Rubens," indicating that there were already several forms and colors available. The Romans originally used Lettuces at the end of the meal for its sleep inducing properties. Lactucarium, a chemical similar to Laudanum being an extract of Lettuce stems. This practice was gradually abandoned and Lettuce became a hors d'oeuver which is how it is most often consumed today.
Lettuces were likely introduced to northern Europe and England by the Romans. The Capitulare de Villis written in France for Charlemagne around 800 AD lists Lettuce. Ibn Bassal, gardener to the Sultan of Toledo in Moorish Spain writes the Book of Agriculture in 1085 and he also lists lettuce although these plants are more likely of Arab than Roman origin. Lettuce was probably introduced to England at an early date although the exact date is lost to history. Aelfric, who writes a Latin vocabulary in England in 995 possibly lists Lettuce although the translation is not definitive. Lettuce is clearly listed by Alexander Neckam in the De Naturis Rerum in 1200. In 1340 Geoffrey Chaucer writes in his Prologue; "well loved he garlic, onions and lettuce." By 1562 Turner writes in the Herball; "all sorts of Lettuce are spent in Sallets with oyl and vinegar."
The earliest lettuce varieties were of the upright or Cos, non-heading forms. The earliest heading varieties probably date to the middle of the 16th century. Leonhard Fuchs in the De historia stirpium (1545) illustrates both a "Lactua sativa crispa" or curled leaf Lettuce and L. s. capitata, or cabbage Lettuce. Estienne and Liebault write in Maison Rustique (1570) that lettuce can be caused to form heads by trampling them. While heading Lettuces seem to be known in 16th century England it is still the upright forms that provide the common fare. These Cos type Lettuces were almost always blanched by tying the leaves together. Thomas Hill writes in The Gardener's Labyrinth (1577); "The greater which will become crisped and thick (named of divers, the Romane Lettice) that yieldeth white and far bigger leaves…If the owner would possesse faire and white Lettices, he ought to bind the leaves up together with a thread." Cos Lettuce is probably named for the Isle of Cos in the Aegean Sea. By the 17th century they were also called Romane or Roman Lettuces which recognizes their introduction to Europe by the Italians. These are also among the most cold hardy of Lettuce varieties and can be grown through the winter in most parts of England.
The Cabbage Lettuce becomes common in the garden by the end of the 16th century and by the 18th century there are many types of heading Lettuces available to the gardener. John Gerard is one of the first to list the Cabbage Lettuce in England in his Herball (1597). "Cabbage Lettuce hath many plain and smooth leaves at his first growing up, which for the most part lie flat still upon the ground: the next that do appear are those leaves in the midst, which turn themselves together, embracing each other so closely, that it is formed into that glove or round head, whereof the simplest is not ignorant." The Cabbage Lettuce is a black-seeded Lettuce while the other five varieties of Lettuce he list are light seeded. The other varieties are: Garden Lettuce (broad smooth leaves), Curled Lettuce, Small Curled Lettuce, Savoy Lettuce (cut or curled leaf) and Lumbard Lettuce (broad leaves similar to Endive).
By 1629, when John Parkinson's Paradisi in Sol is published he writes: "There are so many sorts, and so great diversitie of Lettice, that I doubt I shall scarce be beleeved." The Lettuces he describes includes: "The Romane red Lettice is the best and geatest of all the rest" (black seeded) and he credits John Tradescant for introducing it to England, making it a fairly recent introduction at that time. · "The White Romane Lettice is like unto it" [Romane red], (white seeded) and says must be whited or blanched. ·"The Common Lumbard Lettice" (white seeded) has both an upright and loosely heading form. · "The Venice Lettice" is a cabbage Lettuce (white seeded) that "be sometimes as great as the crowne of a mans hatt." · "Common Cabbage Lettuce" (black seeded) · "Curled Lettice" (black seeded) an open lettuce that "differth but little from Endive." · "Flander Cropers or Cropers of Bruges" (black seeded) a curled Lettuce that forms small, round and very firm heads. · "Winter Lettice" (white seeded) "it is but single, and must be sown at Michaelmas."
In 1699 John Evelyn publishes Acetaria; a discourse of sallets and lists a great variety of Lettuces. Evelyn was a royalist who fled England to France when Cromwell came to power in the middle of the 17th century. He is greatly influenced by French culture and gardening methods, particularly those of the great French gardener Jean de La Quintinie whose work The Compleat Gard'ner he translates to English in 1693. It is therefore not certain if his writings are typical of current English gardening practices or are more a reflection of French culture. The Lettuce varieties he lists are: "Alphange of Montpelier (crisp and delicate), Arabic, Ambervielleres, Belgrade, Cabbage, Capuchin, Cross-Lettuce, Curl'd; the Genoa (lasting all winter), Imperial, Lobbs or Lop-Lettuces, French Minion (a dwarf kind), Oak-Leaf, Passion, Roman, Shell, Silesian." Lettuce varieties that appear for the first time in this work and remain as very popular Lettuces throughout the 18th century are Capuchin, Imperial and Silesian.
Stephen Switzer, in Practical Kitchen Gardiner (1727), lists: "Silesia, Arabian, Bellegarde, Genoa, Imperial, red and white Roman, Coss, Brown Dutch, Spanish, Common Cabbage, Dutch Cabbage, Capuchin, Savoy, Aleppo and Lombardy." The Brown Dutch and Aleppo Lettuce are listed by almost all writers after this time. Switzer also gives us a clue as to the relative size of some of these varieties. He writes that the Coss, Silesia and Imperial must be spaced no closer than 12" apart while the Common Cabbage and Dutch may be spaced from 6-9" apart. He also classifies the varieties by season. The Common Cabbage, Brown Dutch and Genoa are winter Lettuces. Coss, White Imperial and Silesia are spring and summer Lettuces and the Arabia and Bellegarde are Autumn varieties.
The next year, 1728, Richard Bradley publishes the Dictionarium botanicum. The Lettuce varieties he lists are: "Roman Cabbage, White Dutch, Brown Dutch, Black Capuchine, White Capuchine, Spotted, Marbled or Aleppo, Leopard, Curl'd, Silesian, Imperial, Royal, and Tennis-Ball." All of the above are heading Lettuces. He also writes that there are several kinds brought from Turkey that never head and must be tied up for blanching which the Gardeners call Chos Lettuce. The Tennis-Ball Lettuce appears for the first time in this list and remains a popular Lettuce throughout the 18th century. It is generally considered to be synonymous with the Capuchin Lettuce by later authors although both are listed as individual varieties in Bradley's work.
Another garden work published in 1728 is Batty Langley's New Principles of Gardening. He lists: "Imperial, Roman, Brown Dutch, Coss, Silesia, and divers kinds of French Lettices." He also gives spacing recommendations for the different varieties: Capuseen, 4", Brown Dutch, 6", Roman and French, 8", Silesia and Cos, 10", Imperial 12".
The 1754 edition of Philip Miller's The Gardeners Dictionary lists: "Common or Garden Lettuce, Cabbage, Cilicia, Dutch Brown, Aleppo, Imperial, Green Capuchin, Red Capuchin, Versailles or upright Cos, Black Cos, White Cos, Egyptian Cos, Roman, Prince and Royal." Of note here is the Versailles and Egyptian Cos that remain as the premier varieties of Cos Lettuce well into the next century.
John Abercrombe, in Every Man his own Gardiner (1776) lists: "Green, White and Red Coss, Aleppo or spotted, Common Cabbage, Brown Dutch, White Dutch, Silesia, Imperial, Capuchin, Honey, Curled and Black Spanish." He also lists for the first time "Grand admiral or admirable, a very large and fine sort of cabbage-lettuce; it is greatly cultivated by the Kitchen gardeners about London, for their summer crop; is in perfection in July and August." The Grand Admiral remains as a very popular lettuce well into the 19th century.
American garden works of the early 19th century list generally the same varieties as the English works with a few additions. Gardiner and Hepburn, in The American Gardener (1804) list: "Green and White Cos, Brown Dutch, Common Cabbage, Cilicia, Imperial and Grand Admirable." Bernard McMahon, in American Garderner's Calendar (1806) lists: "White, Green, Black and Egyptian Cos, Aleppo, India, Brown Dutch, Common Cabbage, Imperial, Grand Admiral, Hammersmith Hardy Green, Tennisball, New Zealand, Large Royal, Madeira and Saxony Cabbage." The Hammersmith Hardy Green becomes one of the premier winter lettuces through much of the 19th century. Many of the most commonly listed lettuce varieties of the 18th century are still available today, although they, like all varieties of vegetables, have probably under gone some slight changes.
A1. Common Garden Lettuce, Cutting Lettuce and Cabbage Lettuce
The Common Garden Lettuce is the same as the Lobbs, Lop or Lap Lettuce listed by various authors. This is an open Lettuce used as a cutting Lettuce. John Abercrombe in Every Man his own Gardiner (1776) writes: "Lap or common open lettuce, to sow in spring, to cut up young for salads." In Williamsburg John Randolph writes in A Treatise on Gardening (1793); "There is a common garden Lettuce which is sown for cutting young and mixing with other small salads, and is the Cabbage Lettuce degenerated as all seed will do that is saved from a Lettuce that has not Cabbage closely."
The origin of this lettuce is obscure. It may be that even the earliest lettuce varieties would occasionally cabbage and the Common Cabbage Lettuce listed by almost all garden writers is an example of this earliest form. John Gerard hints at this in the Herball (1597) in his description of Garden Lettuce. He describes an open lettuce with a smooth broad leaf of a light green color and then adds: "this is the true discription of the naturall Lettuce, and not of the artificiall; for by manuring, transplanting, and having regard to the Moone and other circumstances, the leaves of the artificiall Lettuce are oftentimes transformed into another shape: for either thy are curled, or else so drawne together, as they seeme to be like a Cabbage." Randolph describes the Common Garden or Cabbage Lettuce as: "This sort of Lettuce is the worst of all kinds in my opinion. It is most watery and flashy, does not grow to the size that many of the others sorts will do, and very soon runs to seed." The earliest references to the Cabbage Lettuce by Gerard (1597) and Parkinson (1629) identify it as a black seeded Lettuce while the common Garden Lettuce of Gerard is a light seeded Lettuce.
While cutting Lettuces were used in the colonial period, most of the small, loose-leaf forms were not known in America prior to the revolution. These Lettuces seem to be developed in France and are introduced to England late in the 18th century (Weaver, Heirloom Vegetable Gardening, 1997). There is the very early reference to Oak-Leaf Lettuce by Evelyn in Acetaria (1699) that may indicate they had arrived in England as a curiosity in a few gardens at an earlier date. A later reference to "divers kinds of French Lettices" by Batty Langley in New Principles of Gardening (1728) is not clear if it refers to the small cutting lettuces. The spacing given of 8" between plants may indicate a heading Lettuce.
A2. Silesia Lettuce
Silesia (Ciletia, Cilicia, Silecia, etc.) Lettuce, as it is know today is often called White Seeded Simpson and is very similar to the familiar Black Seeded Simpson: a light green, open lettuce with curled leaves. Unlike the Black Seeded Simpson, the Silesia of the 18th century was a heading lettuce, although it was likely a fairly loosely headed form. For example, the earliest reference I have seen comes in John Evelyn's Acetaria (1699) and it is apparently a fairly recent introduction as he describes it as "hard and crimp, esteemed of the best and rarest." Crimp likely refers to the crimpled leaf form which is typical of the modern Silesia or Simpson. The designation of hard would seem to indicated a heading Lettuce.
Richard Bradley in New Improvements (1726) list Silesia as a cabbage Lettuce. Batty Langley in New Principles of Gardening (1728) lists Silesia among the Lettuces "which in general…cabbage very well" and as late as 1878 J.C. Loudon, in An Encyclopedia of Gardening includes Silesian under the category of cabbage Lettuces. It may be that these authors have a much "looser" interpretation of heading or cabbage Lettuce than what we use today. Stephen Switzer, in the Practical Kitchen Gardiner (1727) seems to confirm this when he writes: "some that pome or cabbage of their own accord, and others that must be tied up to make them close and white, as the coss or goss lettuce, the Silesia, Roman, etc."
Fearing Burr, in Field and Garden Vegetables of America (1865) describes the White Silesian (syn. White Batavian) as "One of the largest of all Cabbage Lettuces…When well grown, the entire diameter of the plant is about eighteen inches." Robinson, in his translation of Vilmorin's, The Vegetable Garden (1885) describes the White Silesian (Laitue Batavia Blonde) this way: "Head of full-grown plant very large, but not very firm." Most authors, including John Randolph in Williamsburg, use this as an early spring Lettuce although Bradley in New Improvements (1726) says that it will over winter.
A3. Brown Dutch Lettuce
Brown Dutch Lettuce is first mentioned by Richard Bradley in New Improvements (1726) and is listed by almost all authors after this time. Bradley also lists a White Dutch Lettuce in Dictionarium botanicum (1728) as does John Abercrombe in Every Man his own Gardiner (1776). It is likely that both are referring to the white seeded variety of Brown Dutch which implies that the common Brown Dutch is the black seeded variety. Both Burr, Field and Garden Vegetables of America, 1865 and Robinson/Vilmorin, The Vegetable Garden, 1885 describe the white or yellow seeded Brown Dutch as a somewhat smaller, earlier Lettuce with more pronounced blistering and coloration of the leaves than the black seeded form.
The Brown Dutch Lettuce is listed by all authors as one of the best and hardiest winter varieties of Lettuce. It is somewhat smaller than the Silesian, the normal spacing for Brown Dutch is given between 6" and 9" as compared to 12" recommended for Silesia. It is also listed as a cabbage Lettuce although it, like the Silesia, forms a somewhat loose head. It may also be used over the winter months as a cutting Lettuce. Richard Bradley writes in Dictionarium Botanicum (1728) of Brown Dutch; "will be curl'd in its Leaves, by the Time October is over, will mix very well with the small Salad Herbs in the Winter."
A4. Tennis Ball and Capuchin Lettuce
There is a confusing variety of Lettuces with white, black and grey seeds that go by the name of Tennis Ball by various sources. Generally, the black seeded Tennis Ball and the Capuchin are considered as synonymous. However, Richard Bradley in the Dictionarium botanicum (1728) lists the "Black Capuchine, White Capuchine and Tennis Ball" as individual varieties. This is most likely the result of garden writers and nurserymen giving identical Lettuces different names, a phenomenon that seems to date to the earliest years of Lettuce cultivation and is a source of confusion to this day. While only Bradley, among the English writers in this survey, lists the Tennis Ball Lettuce in the 18th century, most writers list the Capuchin. Adam's Luxury and Eve's Cookery (1744) lists a green Capuchin or Cabazin Lettuce and Miller, in The Gardener's Dictionary (1768) lists both a green and red Capuchin. In this country, Tennis Ball Lettuce is recorded by Major Thomas Jones, in Essex Co. in 1797. McMahon listss the Tennis Ball in American Gardener's Calendar (1806) and Jefferson lists the Tennis Ball in 1809. This is a small heading Lettuce. Batty Langley in New Principles of Gardening (1728) gives a spacing of only 4" apart for the Capaseen Lettuce. The Tennis Ball or Capuchin lettuce is one of the earliest varieties of heading lettuce. Giacomo Castelvetro writes in The Fruits, Herbs and Vegetables of Italy (1614): “The crisp, white, capucina is refreshing and at the same time induces the sweet sleep that the heat eisturbs and dispels. We also eat this lettuce cooked. Cut the solid heart into four parts.”
The white seeded Tennis Ball is synonymous with White Gotte Lettuce in Burr's Field and Garden Vegetables of America (1865) and synonymous with Boston Market Lettuce in Vilmorin's The Vegetable Garden (1885). Burr writes in his description of the White Silesian Lettuce; "A variety known as the 'Tennis-ball' in some localities much resembles this; and the 'Boston Cabbage' of New England, if not identical, seems to be but an improved form of the White Silesian." The white-seeded Tennis Ball available today goes by the French name Gotte Jaune d'Or.
The Green Capuchin and the Brown Dutch Lettuce are often listed as the most cold hardy of the 18th century varieties. In Williamsburg, John Randolph writes in A Treatise on Gardening (1793); "The Dutch Brown, and the green Capuchin are very hardy, will stand the winters best, and remain in the heat of summer 3 weeks longer than any before they go to seed."
A5. Aleppo Lettuce
Today, this is generally classified as a Cos type, spotted Lettuce. Aleppo is a city in Syria where it presumably originates. It is listed for the first time in this survey by Switzer in Practical Kitchen Gardiner (1727). There is some confusion as to the Aleppo Lettuce of the 18th century. Bradley, in Dictionarium botanicum (1728), lists the "Spotted, Marbled or Aleppo Lettuce" as a cabbaging Lettuce. In Williamsburg, John Randolph writes in A Treatise on Gardening (1793): "The Aleppo and Roman Lettuce cabbage, the soonest of any, and may be propagated for that reason." This may be the same lettuce that Amelia Simmons writes of in American Cookery (1796); "Lettuce, is of various kinds; the purple spotted leaf is generally the tenderest, and free from bitter. Your taste must guide your market." If it is the same Lettuce, Randolph tastes are indeed different for he says: "it did not please me so will as the other more common sorts."
Many English garden writers from the 18th century list the Aleppo Lettuce but do not describe its form. By the early 19th century, in this country, it is listed by Bernard McMahon in American Gardener's Calendar (1806) as a Cos type: "the Aleppo and Egyptian Cos, do not head like the other kinds, but if tied up as you do endive, they will blanch beautifully." Most Coss type Lettuces do form loosely upright heads and perhaps this explains the confusion between cabbaging types and loose leaf types in 18th century descriptions.
The Imperial Lettuce is a white seeded variety first listed by Evelyn in Acetarea (1699) and is listed by almost all authors after this time. It is one of the largest varieties of Lettuce grown and is described as a cabbaging Lettuce by most authors although Switzer, Practical Kitchen Gardiner (1727), lists it among the Lettuces that should be tied up for blanching. Most authors also list it as a spring and summer Lettuce although Bradley writes in New Improvements (1726) that it will stand the winter. Fearing Burr writes in Field and Garden Vegetables of America (1865) of the Imperial Head (syn. Turkey Cabbage, Union) that it is "well adapted for winter cultivation" while Robinson writes in his translation of Vilmorin's The Vegetable Garden (1885) that it is only suitable for summer culture. Vilmorin also identifies this lettuce as a white seeded form of the Turkish or Butter Lettuce. Both authors describe it as a large, loosely formed lettuce with dull green leaves. It is possible that the difference in cultural recommendations for this Lettuce is a result of the different growing conditions in England (Robinson) and America (Burr). It is also likely that somewhat different varieties or Lettuce have carried the name Imperial.
The Imperial Lettuce offered today through Seed Savers Exchange is listed as a winter variety. Fearing Burr writes that it is being replaced by the Ice Lettuce by the middle of the 19th century and adds; "The Imperial Head, or Imperial Cabbage, with white seeds, was at one period more generally cultivated in small gardens than any other variety."
A7. Cos Lettuce
The Cos Lettuces are the most ancient form of Lettuce. These are all upright open Lettuces that require blanching to achieve their best flavor. This is the Roman Lettuce described in Parkinson's Paradisi in Sol (1629) and is listed by all authors after this time. Parkinson also credits John Tradescant the elder with introducing the red form to England early in the 17th century. Pliny lists two varieties of Lettuces in his Natural History in the first century AD as "Rubens" and "Purpurea," indicating red and purple forms of Lettuce, that were almost certainly of the Cos form, were known at a much earlier date in southern Europe. The oldest varieties of Cos Lettuce appear to be white seeded forms, although Parkinson's Roman Red is a black seeded form.
The Endive-leaved Lettuce is listed by Gerard in the Herball (1597) and continues to be grown, to some extent, throughout the 18th century. Jefferson lists this variety in 1786. This is a small variety that is used as a cutting Lettuce. Throughout the 18th century authors list white, green, black and red Cos types and they are always listed as among the best varieties for the garden. John Evelyn describes the Alphange of Montpelier as "crisp and delicate." There are both black and white seeded forms of Alphange Cos and it is not clear which he is referring to. The Versailles or Upright Cos and the Egyptian Cos are first listed by Miller, The Gardeners Dictionary (1754) and the Egyptian, in particular, becomes one of the most commonly cited varieties throughout the rest of the 18th and early 19th century. This variety, or at least the name, Egyptian, seems to disappear by the middle of the 19th century when Burr's and Vilmorin's works are published and I have not been able to discover any description of it. Nearly all authors recommend that Cos lettuces be tied up for blanching. Giacomo Castelvetro (The Fruits, Herbs & Vegetables of Italy, 1614) writes: “There is the romana, with its much longer, smooth leaves, which our ingenious gardeners tie tightly together round a cane, so that the insides blanch as white as snow and become wonderfully crisp.”
Both the white seeded and black seeded forms of Paris Cos are appropriate to use in our gardens. The red Cos, while listed in England, does not appear in any references from Williamsburg.
B. Spinach
Spinach, Spinacia oleracea, has been cultivated in Iran since at least 2000 BC and the name derives from the Persian ispanai, meaning green hand. (Dr. H.A. Mills, Univ. of Georgia) It seems to travel east to China, where it is introduced in 647 AD before coming west to Europe. There is no clear reference to Spinach by the Greeks or Romans. It had been introduced to Spain by 1074 when Ibn Hajjaj writes a monograph on it and it is included in the Book of Agriculture (1085) written by Ibn Basal, gardener to the Sultan of Toledo. From there it is introduced to Europe. Albert Magnus writes of the prickly seeded form of Spinach in Germany around 1260. Leonhard Fuchs in De historia stirpium (1545) writes of "Spinachia" as a Spanish vegetable that; "scorns barren areas but grows very happily wherever planted. Cultivated by everybody as a pot herb, like Mangolt" (Swiss Chard).
It is not clear when spinach was introduced to England. The Arch Bishop of Canterbury writes of "spynhach" at Lambeth in 1322 and "spynoches" are included in an English cookbook from 1390 called The Forme of Cury. These references may be to Orach, Atriplex hortensis, or perhaps Self Heal, Prunella vulgaris. William Turner, in A New Herball (1551), writes of spinach as; "an herb lately found, and not long in use." By 1597, when John Gerard publishes his Herball, Spinach is apparently still a somewhat obscure vegetable for Gerard writes: "I rather take it for a kinde of Orach."
The first spinach in Europe was the prickly seeded form. The smooth seeded form, which is universally grown today, was known by the early 17th century. John Parkinson writes in Paradisi in Sol (1629) that there are three sorts of spinach, two prickly; the common spinach "being the lesser of the two prickly sorts" and a smooth. The smooth is apparently of recent introduction for Parkinson writes: "the third that beareth a smooth seede, which is more daintie, and noursed up but in few Gardens." He describes the smooth seeded spinach as having broader, rounder leaves and also offers a tip on cooking, writing that "Many English have learned it of the Dutch people" to steam it with butter. John Evelyn agrees with this method of using it as a boiled salad in Acetaria (1699) writing: "of old not us'd in Sallets, and the oftener kept out the better: I speak of the crude: But being boil'd…is a most excellent Condiment." Spinach comes to the New World with the first colonists. In New England John Winthrop Jr. buys "spynadge seed" in 1631.
By the 18th century both the round and the prickly seeded spinach is well known in Williamsburg. The prickly is generally recommended for winter use as it is a hardier plant though the smooth seeded form, by most writers, is the preferred variety for the general crop in spring and summer. Batty Langley writes in New Principles of Gardening (1728): "The prickly Spinage is of the same Taste when boil'd as the round Leaf, but is not so much esteem'd by Gardiners." By 1865 Fearing Burr writes in Field and Garden Vegetables of America: "the Common Winter or Prickly-seeded is now considered scarcely worthy of cultivation."
New Zealand spinach was found in that country during the expedition to South Seas led by Captain Cook in 1772 and introduced to England by Sir Joseph Banks. It should not be used in our gardens.
C. Endive
Endive, Cichorium endivia, is probably of Mediterranean origin and has been used as a pot herb since at least Roman times and likely much earlier. Endive is listed in the Capitulare de Villis, prepared for the emperor Charlemagne around 800 AD in France. J.C. Loudon, in An Encyclopedia of Gardening (1878) gives a 1548 date of introduction into England. It is possible that it was introduced much earlier. Henry Daniel, a 14th century herbalist, lists both a ragged and whole leaf endive, but because lettuces have also gone by the name of endive in early works it is not a definitive reference. There is also some confusion between Endive and Succory (Chicory) in early works. These are closely related plants of the same genus, Endive being an annual and Chicory a perennial. Thomas Hill writes in The Gardener's Labyrinth (1577): "The Endive, otherwise named the Succorie, or sower Lettice, serveth rather for the use of Medicine, then for other purposes." He is likely referring to Chicory, Chicorium intybus, in this case. However, in the same work he recommends that Endive be blanched by covering the plants with soil or tying them up with thread and covering them with a pot of earth. In this case he is almost certainly referring to Endive. Gerard, in the Herball (1597) lists two Succories and two Endives. The Garden Endive is a smooth leaved Endive and the Curled Endive "that hath leaves not unlike to those of the curled or Cabbage lettuce, but much greater." John Parkinson, in Paradisi in Sol (1629), also lists both a smooth and curled Endive. Both are "whited" or blanched for a winter salad and he observes that "the curled Endive is both farre the fairer, and the tenderer for that purpose."
This preference for the curled Endive continues to this very day to the point that the broad leaf variety is seldom seen. Philip Miller writes in The Gardeners Dictionary (1768) of the broad leaved Endive: "This sort is not much cultivated in the English gardens at present, for the curled Endive being tenderer, and not so bitter, is generally preferred to it." Endive is always used as a winter green and is always blanched, generally by tying up the leaves with twine and earthing the plant up or by covering it with pots. In Williamsburg, John Randolph writes in A Treatise on Gardening (1793) that it can also be transplanted to trenches and earthed up in the manner of celery. Not everyone agrees on the value of this plant, however. Batty Langley writes in New Principles of Gardening (1728): "Endive is an excellent Winter and Spring Sallet, and highly deserves our Care." On the other hand Richard Bradley writes in New Improvements (1726): "Endive, when it is blanched, is much used about London in Winter Sallets; though, in my Opinion, it is a plant hardly worth our Trouble, as it has neither Taste nor Flavour." Because of the specialized care needed to blanch it, it would likely be found more commonly in the gentry gardens of colonial Virginia.
D. Parsley
Parsley, Petroselinum crispum, is native to the shores of Southern Europe and was used as both a culinary plant and a medicine by the Greeks and Romans. Pliny (23 -79 AD) states in the Natural History that not a salad or sauce is presented without it. Columella lists both a broad and curled leaf parsley in 42 AD. Parsley likely comes to Europe and England with the Romans. Aelfric, who writes a Latin vocabulary in England lists Parsley in 995 AD.
There is much folk lore about methods of obtaining the two leaf forms of parsley. Thomas Hill writes in The Gardener's Labyrinth (1577) that the broad leaf form is obtained by tying the seeds in a linen cloth before planting and the curled leaf is obtained by wrapping the seeds in a ball and breaking them with a staff. He also records the most famous use for parsley when he writes: "There is nothing that doth like sweeten the mouth, as fresh and green Parcely eaten." By 1629 John Parkinson writes in Paradisi in Sol: "Our common Parsley is so well knowne, that it is almost needless to describe it." The common Parsley of the time was the flat leaf variety. There was some suspicion of the plant in 16th century England over a belief that it would cause epilepsy if used too frequently. This may be what John Evelyn was referring to in Acetaria (1699) when he observes: "Some few tops of the tender Leaves may yet be admitted; tho' it was of old, we read, never brought to the Table at all."
The flat leaf parsley remains as the common parsley throughout the 18th century although the curled is well known. Philip Miller writes in The Gardeners Dictionary (1754): "The curled Parsley is sown in some curious Gardens, for garnishing Dishes." In this country, Amelia Simmons gives a method for growing it indoors in the winter in American Cookery (1796) in which the plants are placed in one inch holes drilled into the sides of a wooden keg, much like the familiar strawberry pot. The Hamburg Parsley seems to be introduced to England in the 18th century. Philip Miller in The Gardeners Dictionary (1754): "The great-rooted Garden Parsley is now more known in England than it was some Years ago: in Holland it is very common in all their markets." There are no references to Hamburg Parsley in Williamsburg in the 18th century although it is listed in an inventory of plants in a German community garden in Bethabara North Carolina in 1759.
E. Cress
There are a wide variety of plants that carry the name Cress. This study will look at the four primary culinary Cresses. Water Cress (Nasturtium), Winter Cress (Barbarea), Garden Cress (Lepidium) and Indian Cress, called Nasturtium today (Tropaeolum).
E1. Water Cress
Water Cress has been used for many centuries, often in combination with other greens to warm and stimulate. A Greek saying recommends, "eat cress, and learn more wit." The Romans recommended water cress for those with deranged minds. It is also recommended as a medicinal plant by Dioscorides (AD 77) who writes that it is gathered from the wild. This plant has always been gathered from the wild. Batty Langley observes in New Principles of Gardening (1728), that Water Cresses "are never cultivated in the garden." Never the less, Water Cress has a long and popular history in England. Children could be seen on the streets of London in the 18th century hawking baskets of Water Cress for salads.
E2. Garden Cress
Garden Cress, also called Peppergrass, is probably a native of Western Asian to the Near East and into Ethiopia. The Persians are among the first to record its use. It is listed by the Roman Palladius in 380 AD and Cress is listed in the Capitulare de Villis, prepared for Charlemange around 800 AD. It is generally thought that Garden Cress was introduced to England in the 16th century. Walafrid lists Cress in 840 though this may be the Winter Cress.
By the 16th century all three varieties (common, broad leaf and curled) of Cresses are well known. Leonhard Fuchs writes in the De historia stirpium (1545) that they are "Everywhere grown in gardens." Gerard lists and illuatrates several types in the Herball (1597); "Garden Cress or Towne Cress hath small narrow jagged leaves, sharp and burning in taste." This curled form of cress is usually the most esteemed by garden writers throughout history although William Cobbett writes in American Gardener (1821); "The curled is the prettiest and is, therefore, generally preferred, but the plain is the best."
Regardless of individual tastes this was clearly a highly esteemed salad plant. In Adam's Luxury and Eve's Cookery (1744) it is recorded: "This Plant is very much esteemed for mixing in Sallets, and is to be cultivated all the Year." It is even recommended that a space be saved for Cresses in the hotbed for winter use.
There are several species of Lepidium that have been used as salad greens although Lepidium sativum is the most esteemed. Philip Miller lists 13 species in The Gardeners Dictionary (1768). The first is described as a common weed but he adds; "the leaves have often been used by the country people to give a relish to their viands instead of Pepper, from whence it had the appellation of Poor Man's Pepper." His 10th sort is the common Garden Cress of which he writes: "so much used in winter and spring salads, and being so well known requires no description."
E3. Winter Cress
Winter Cress, or Scurvy Grass, is the poor cousin of the Garden Cress. It seems to be common as a salad green in the 16th and 17th century and then largely disappears from the table by the 18th century. Gerard writes in the Herball (1597) of Winter Cress: "It groweth in gardens among pot herbes, and very common in the fields, neere to pathes and high wayes, almost every where." To this day, the "Creasy Greens" known to southern cooks, is gathered in the wild and seldom cultivated in the garden although the Upland Cress (Barbarea vulgaris) is sometimes brought into the garden. Philip Miller writes of the Winter Cress in The Gardeners Dictionary (1768): "these were formerly eaten in winter salads, before the English gardens were furnished with better plants; since when they have been rejected, for they have a rank smell, and are disagreeable to the palate."
E4. Indian Cress
Indian Cress, or the common Nasturtium, was perhaps the most prized of all the cresses in the 18th century. There are two forms of the Nasturtium, Tropaeolum minus, the dwarf form with small leaves and generally of a bush habit and T. Majus, the larger leaved climbing form. Nasturtium is the Latin word for cress, Indian Cress refers to its place of origin which is Peru. T. minus seems to be the first introduced to Europe. Gerard receives seeds of this plant from Paris and lists it in the first edition of the Herball in 1597 calling it the "Cresses of India." John Parkinson writes in Paradisi in Sol (1629) of the "Indian Cresses or Yellow Larkes heels [that it] is of so great beauty and sweetnesse withal, that my Garden of delight cannot bee unfurnished of it." He also observes that "This goodly plant was first found in the West Indies [and that] The Spaniards and others use the leaves hereof in stead of ordinary Cresses." T. majus was introduced to England in the 1680's and quickly replaced T. minus. (The Kitchen Garden, D. Stuart, 1984). By the 18th century Indian Cress was preferred to all others. Stephen Switzer writes in Practical Kitchen Gardiner (1727): "Of the cresses there are three or four sorts that are admitted into the garden…the Indian kind is recommended above all."
In Williamsburg, John Randolph writes in A Treatise on Gardening (1793): "If stuck they will climb to a very great height and will last till the frost come, and then totally perish. It is thought the flower is superior to a radish in flavour, and is eat in salads or without." Not only are the flowers used in salads but the seeds can be pickled and it is a handsome ornamental. Bernard McMahon writes in American Gardener's Calendar (1804): "Few ornamental plants are better known or more generally cultivated than the Nasturtium."
F. Corn Salad
Corn Salad, Valerianella locusta, is also known by the English as Lambs Lettuce, by the French as mâche and the Germans as Feldsalat. The English name Lambs Lettuce was apparently derived from it being a cool season green and provided early pasturage for the spring lambs.
This small salad green has been gathered from the wild as a salad green since prehistoric times. It was found among the remains Swiss lake dwellings dating from the late Stone Age. Corn Salad was a common English green in the 17th century and before but begins to fall out of favor in the 18th century. John Gerard lists it in his Herball (1597) as "Lambs lettuce or Corne Sallad" and adds that it is commonly called the "white pot-herbe." He illustrates two varieties that appear to differ only in the size of the leaves. Parkinson, in Paradisi in Sol (1629) describes it as a salad green sown in Autumn for winter salads and its primary importance has long been as a green for the cold months of the year when other salad greens are not available. John Evelyn writes in Acetaria (1699) that "the French call them Salad de Preter, for their being generally eaten in Lent." It is listed as a salad green by Leonard Meager in The English Gardener (1683) and by John Worlidge in the Gardeners Monthly Directions (1688). Curiously, Batty Langley writes in New Principles of Gardening (1728), that "Corn Sallet…is now received into our Gardens, and was introduced by the French and Dutch, who were the first to eat it in Sallets in England." This is written at a time in which Corn Salad seems to be of minor importance in other gardening works. Richard Bradley, in New Improvements (1726) mentions it briefly as a winter green, and in Adam's Luxury and Eve's Cookery (1744) it is mentioned only in passing; "This Plant is by some cultivated for Sallets." In 1754 Philip Miller writes in The Gardeners Dictionary that it "is often cultivated in Gardens, for Sallads in the Spring." By the time Miller published the 1768 edition of The Gardeners Dictionary he writes: "It is propagated as a sallad herb for the spring, but having a strong taste which is not agreeable to many palates, it is not so much in use as it was formerly." In 1821 William Cobbett writes in American Gardener: "This is a little insignificant annual plant that some persons use in salads, though it can hardly be of any real use, where lettuce seed is to be had. It is a mere weed."
In this country it is listed in New England among the seeds ordered by John Winthrop Jr. from Robert Hill (1631). There are only a few references to Corn Salad in Williamsburg. Robert Carter Nicholas places an order for Corn Salad with the John Norton Company in 1771 and William Wills and John Donley advertise seeds of Corn Salad for sale in 1767 and 1768 in the Virginia Gazette. It is likely that Corn Salad, in the 18th century, both here and in England was a winter green of fairly minor importance and its use varied by individual taste.
G. Mustard
Mustard provided one of the earliest spices and is recorded in Sanskrit records dating to around 3000 B.C. The term mustard comes from the use of the seeds to form a sweet "must" which was a component of old wines. As a spice the crushed seeds were formed into a paste called "hot must" or "mustum ardens." There are quite a number of plants that have carried the name mustard over the centuries but the principle ones are: White Mustard, Sinapis alba; Brown Mustard, Brassica juncea; Black Mustard, Brassica nigra and Ethiopian Mustard, Brassica carinata (Evolution of Crop Plants, Simmonds, 1979). In the table condiment the White Mustard gives the hot quality while the Brown or Black gives the mustard its pungency.
Both the Black and White Mustard have a long history in Europe. The Black Mustard has been used since at least the middle ages and the White Mustard since the 16th century. Mustard is listed in France in the Capitulare de Villis (800 AD) and is included in a Latin vocabulary written in England by the monk Aelfric in 995 AD. Of the Mustards, only the White Mustard seems to be used in Virginia and it is listed by many 18th sources in Williamsburg. It was used both for its seeds to make the mustard sauce and for the seed leaves as an additive to salads. In Europe, White Mustard has gone under various names including; White, English, Danish, Hungarian, Sicilian, Bari, and English or Russian Brown. Mustard Greens, the popular salad green used in southern cooking today is Brassica juncea and while it has a long history of use in the orient does not seem to be known in 18th century Europe or America and should not be used in our gardens.
Thomas Hill described the harvesting of Mustard in The Gardener's Labyrinth (1577): "After the plants have enjoyed strong root in the earth, they are hardly plucked up by the roots, and the seeds may well be kept for five years, which the newer they be, so much the better to sow, and to be eaten. The goodnesse of the seed is known in the breaking or cracking of it between the teeth, whether the same be bound green or white within: for if this be white, the seed is old and nothing worth, neither to sow, nor to eat." Hill does not make a distinction between various mustard types but Gerard lists many plants under the name of Mustard in the Herball (1597). By the 18th century it is only the White Mustard that has a wide usage as a salad green. In Adam's Luxury and Eve's Cookery (1744) it is observed; "There are two Sorts of Mustard, White and Red; but the White only being cultivated in the Kitchen Garden…this is propagated by Seed for Sallets to mix with Cresses, etc., all the Year…it is to be cut whilst in the Seed Leaf." White Mustard makes a quick and easy crop in the fall, winter and early spring and would have been found in gardens throughout Williamsburg in the 18th century.
H. Rocket
Rocket, Eruca visicaria, is generally known as Arugula today, which probably derives from the Spanish Oruga. It has a long history as a salad green in Europe and was cultivated by the ancient Greeks, Romans and Turks. Rocket is listed in France as a salad green in the Capitulare de Villis (800 AD) and in England by Alexander Neckam in De Naturis Rerum (c. 1200). It also has a long history as a sexual stimulant. Turner writes in the A New Herball (1551) that eaten in great quantity; "it stirreth up the pleasure of the body." In Hill's Gardener's Labyrinth (1577) it is written; "Rocket encreaseth the Sperm, causeth the venereal act, causeth a giddinesse and paine in the head, encreaseth a strong heat." To counteract the effect of Rocket he recommends that "The Rocket is added to the Lettice in Sallets, to the end it may temper the contrary vertue of the same." The use of Lettuce to counteract the effects of Rocket is cited by several early authors. In the 1578 Lyte translation of Dodoens A Niewe Herbal or Historie of Plants, it is recorded; "the use thereof stirreth up bodily pleasure, especially the seed…if Rocket be eaten alone, it causeth headache, and heateth too much, therefore it must never be eaten alone, but alwaies with lettuce or purcelaine."
Several varieties of Rocket are listed by 17th authors but the Roman Rocket is the most prized of the varieties. Gerard records in the Herball (1597) that there are several sorts, the most common being "Garden Rocket" or "Rocketgentle" and adds that "Romane Rocket is cherished in Gardens." Parkinson also makes a distinction between varieties of Rocket in Paradisi in Sol (1629): "Our Garden Rocket is but a wilde kinde brought into Gardens; for the true Romane Rocket hath larger leaves." This does not seem to be consistent trait for Bradley lists several varieties of Rocket in Dictionarium botanicum (1728) and observes that the White or Roman Rocket has smaller leaves than the Garden kind. By the middle of the 18th century Rocket seems to fall out of favor. Philip Miller writes in the 1754 edition of The Gardeners Dictionary that the Garden Rocket "was formerly very much cultivated in Gardens as a Sallad-herb; but at present is very little used." In the 1768 edition of The Gardeners Dictionary he adds that "it has been long rejected on account of its strong ungrateful smell." I can find no record of Rocket being sold or grown in 18th century Williamsburg.
I. Chard
Chard, Beta vulgaris, var. cicla, is also known as the White Beet and Spinach Beet in English garden works of the 17th and 18th century. It has a very long history as a salad green that predates the Red Beet, grown primarily for its root. Chard is native to western Asia and was a common salad green with both the Greeks and Romans. Aristotle, writing in the 4th century BC describes both a green and red Chard. Theophrastus writing several years later describes Chards with light green, dark green and red leaves and Chard is listed by all garden writers after this time in many different leaf colors. Fuchs, in De historia stirpium (1545) records that the Spinach Beet "grows in gardens and tilled land everywhere." It is curious that Thomas Hill writes in The Gardeners Labyrinth (1577) that "The Beete [chard] more often eaten at poor mens tables." This distinction of being a food for the poorer sort does not seem to be recognized by other garden writers after this time. By 1596 the Swiss botanist, Casper Bauhin adds yellow leaved Chard to the green and red varieties and in England Parkinson records in Paradisi in Sol (1629): "whereof some are white, some greene some yellow, some red." John Evelyn gives the source for the modern name of Chard in Acetaria: a discourse of sallets (1699) as "The Costa, or rib of the White Beet (by the French call'd Chard)."
Chard is listed by all 18th century English garden writers so it is surprising that the only reference to Chard, or the White Beet, in Williamsburg is found in the seed list offered by James Wilson at the College of William and Mary in 1774 and by Myles Taylor, of Richmond, in 1775. Later American garden books including Squibb's, The Gardener's Calendar (1787) lists White Beet and McMahon's, American Gardener's Calendar (1806) lists: "Green or common, curled, red, yellow and silver." . William Byrd II lists beets in his Natural History (c.1730), which probably includes the white beet. Jefferson records planting the White Beet in 1774, but does not mention it after this single reference.
I think it is safe to assume that the Chard was known to colonial Virginians, but it does not seem to be held in as high regard as other salad greens. Could it be that Hill's 16th century observation of it being fit only for the poorer sort is a sentiment held by colonial Virginians as well?
Historic Triangle
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